Suchen und Finden
Foreword
6
Preface
8
Acknowledgements
11
Contents
12
Contributors
14
About the Editor
16
About the Authors
17
1 International Space Law: A Basis for National Regulation
26
1.1 Introduction
26
1.2 Outer Space Treaty
30
1.3 Liability Convention
34
1.4 Registration Convention
35
1.5 Application of the Concept of the Launching State
37
1.6 International Telecommunication Law
38
1.7 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines
42
1.8 Export Controls
43
1.9 Conclusion
46
2 Regulation of Space Activities in Argentina
47
2.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation
47
2.1.1 Law-Making Processes
47
2.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws
48
2.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
49
2.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
50
2.2.1 Safety Concerns
52
2.2.2 Continuing Supervision
53
2.2.3 Argentine Space Object Registry
53
2.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
54
2.3.1 General Satellite Telecommunications Framework
55
2.3.2 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign)
56
2.3.2.1 Geostationary Satellite Services
56
2.3.2.2 Non Geostationary Satellites
59
2.4 Conclusion
59
3 Regulation of Space Activities in Australia
60
3.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government and Legal Regulation
60
3.1.1 The Australian Legal System
60
3.1.2 Australia's Early Involvement in Space Activities
61
3.1.3 Space Policy in Australia
63
3.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services
67
3.2.1 History and Objectives
67
3.2.2 Broad Outline of the Legislation
71
3.2.2.1 Establishment of the Space Licensing and Safety Office
75
3.2.2.2 Launch Safety Officer
76
3.2.2.3 Registration
77
3.2.2.4 Liability
77
3.2.2.5 Investigations
79
3.2.2.6 Some (Relatively) Minor Issues Requiring Clarification
79
3.3 Satellite Data Distribution Policy
80
3.3.1 International Space-Related Agreements
80
3.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
80
References
82
4 Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil
83
4.1 Introduction
83
4.2 National Space Law
84
4.3 Brazilian Space Law
84
4.4 First Phase of Brazilian Space Law
85
4.5 Second Phase of Brazilian Space Law
88
4.6 Third Phase of Brazilian Space Laws
90
4.7 Brazilian Launch Licensing and Authorizing Regimes
93
4.7.1 The Shorter Way
94
4.7.2 Details of the Administrative Edicts
95
4.7.3 Focus
96
4.7.4 Definitions of License and Authorization
96
4.7.5 Definition of Space Launching
97
4.7.6 Documents Required
97
4.7.7 Liability Issues
98
4.7.8 Foreign Legal Persons: Special Requirements
99
4.7.9 Settlement of Disputes
99
4.7.10 Business Plan
100
4.8 Regulations on Space Safety
100
4.9 Brazilian National General Law on Space Activities?
101
References
101
5 Regulation of Space Activities in Canada
103
5.1 Introduction
103
5.2 Constitutional Basis of Canadian Space Regulatory Regime
104
5.3 Organisation of Space Activities
106
5.4 Launch Activities
107
5.5 Export Controls
109
5.6 Satellite Communications
113
5.7 Remote Sensing
118
5.8 Human Space Activities and Microgravity Research
122
5.9 Military Uses of Outer Space
126
5.10 Canadas International Responsibility
128
5.11 Conclusion and Final Remarks
129
6 Regulation of Space Activities in France
130
6.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation
130
6.1.1 Law-Making Processes
130
6.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws
130
6.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
131
6.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
132
6.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Carried Out by Private Enterprises
132
6.2.2 Competition in Launch Services
133
6.2.3 National Security Concerns
133
6.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
134
6.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign)
134
6.3.1.1 Use of Satellite Frequencies
134
6.3.1.2 Provision of Telecommunications Network and Services
135
6.3.2 Foreign Investment
136
6.3.3 Competition
136
6.3.4 Interconnections
137
6.3.5 Universal Access
137
6.3.6 Rate Regulation
137
6.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy)
138
6.3.7.1 Privacy
138
6.3.7.2 Content
139
6.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
140
6.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators
140
6.4.2 Data Distribution
140
6.4.3 National Security Concerns
141
6.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
142
6.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights
142
6.5.2 Mechanism for Exploiting IP Rights
142
6.5.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology
142
6.5.4 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology
142
6.6 Satellite Navigational Services
143
7 Regulation of Space Activities in Germany
144
7.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulations
144
7.1.1 Law-Making Processes
144
7.1.2 Basic Principles of National Law
148
7.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
148
7.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
151
7.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services by Private Enterprises
151
7.2.2 Competition in Launch Services
152
7.2.3 National Security Concerns
153
7.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
153
7.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators
155
7.3.2 Foreign Investment
157
7.3.3 Competition
158
7.3.4 Interconnections
158
7.3.5 Universal Service
160
7.3.6 Rate Regulation
162
7.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy)
163
7.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
163
7.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators
163
7.4.2 Distribution of Data
164
7.4.3 National Security Concerns
164
7.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
166
7.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights
167
7.5.2 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology
171
7.6 Satellite Navigational Services
172
7.7 Summary
172
8 Regulation of Space Activities in India
174
8.1 Introduction
174
8.2 Decision-Making Process and International Obligations
176
8.2.1 Organization of and Decision-Making Process Related to Space Activities
176
8.2.2 International Obligations, the Constitution of India and State Practice
177
8.3 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services
184
8.3.1 Licensing of Launch Services for Private Enterprises
185
8.3.2 Competition in Launch Services
186
8.3.3 National Security Concerns
187
8.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications and Broadcasting
190
8.4.1 Satellite Telecommunications
193
8.4.1.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators
193
8.4.1.2 Basic Licensing Requirements for Satellite Telecommunications
193
8.4.1.3 Leasing Foreign Satellite Capacity
194
8.4.1.4 Private Indian Satellite Systems
194
8.4.1.5 Telecom Service License Categories
195
8.4.2 Satellite Broadcasting
197
8.4.2.1 Broadcasting Service Licenses
197
8.4.2.2 License for Up-Linking from India
197
8.4.2.3 License for Direct-to-Home (DTH) Broadcasting Service
198
8.4.2.4 Content Regulation
199
8.4.2.5 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Operators
200
8.4.2.6 Global Mobile Personal Communications Via Satellite
201
8.4.2.7 National Security Concerns
201
8.5 Legal Issues Relating to Remote Sensing/Earth Observation Satellite Services
202
8.5.1 The UN Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of Earth from Outer Space
202
8.5.2 Data Distribution Policy in India
202
8.5.3 National Security Concerns
204
8.6 Legal Issues Relating to Satellite Navigational Services
205
8.6.1 GPS and GAGAN
206
8.6.2 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
206
8.6.3 Participation in GLONASS
207
8.6.4 Participation in Galileo
207
8.6.5 International Legal Regime for GNSS
208
8.6.5.1 Sovereignty
208
8.6.5.2 Liability
209
8.6.6 Application of International Legal Regime to GAGAN and IRNSS
209
8.6.7 Current Indian Legal Regime Relating to Aeronautical Navigation Services
211
8.7 Intellectual Property Rights and Transfer of Technology
214
8.7.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights
214
8.7.2 Mechanism for Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights
215
8.7.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology
216
8.7.4 National Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology
217
8.8 Conclusion
219
9 Regulation of Space Activities in Japan
220
9.1 General Philosophy and Process for Government Regulation
220
9.1.1 Law-Making Process
220
9.1.2 Basic Principles of National Law
221
9.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
222
9.1.3.1 A Primary Agency to Engage in Space Development: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
222
9.1.3.2 Entity to Decide National Space Policy: From Space Activities Commission (SAC) to Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP)
223
9.1.3.3 Other Agencies Involved in the Development and Use of Space
225
9.1.3.4 Authorization and Supervision of JAXA
226
9.1.4 Constitutional Matters (Jurisdiction Over Space Activities) and Implementation of International Treaties in Japan
228
9.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
228
9.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises
228
9.2.2 Competition in Launch Services
233
9.2.3 National Security Concerns
234
9.2.3.1 Export Control Laws and Policy
234
9.2.3.2 Inward Direct Investment
236
9.2.3.3 Peaceful Uses: From Non-Military to Non-Aggressive Uses
237
9.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
238
9.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign)
238
9.3.2 Foreign Investments
240
9.3.3 Competition, Interconnection, Universal Access, and Rate Regulation
241
9.3.4 Content Regulation (Including Privacy)
241
9.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
243
9.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
243
9.6 Satellite Navigation Services
243
10 Regulation of Space Activities in The Netherlands
245
10.1 The General Background: The Netherlands and Outer Space
245
10.2 The Specific Background: The Netherlands and International Space Law
246
10.3 New Developments: The Changing Dutch Spacescape
249
10.4 Mircorp and New Skies Satellites
251
10.5 The Dutch Space Activities Act
256
10.5.1 Chapter 1: General Provisions
256
10.5.2 Chapter 2: Licences
258
10.5.3 Chapter 3: Registry of Space Objects
260
10.5.4 Chapter 4: Redress
262
10.5.5 Chapter 5: Enforcement
263
10.5.6 Chapter 6: Amendments to Other Legislation
263
10.5.7 Chapter 7: Concluding Provisions
264
10.6 The Netherlands: A New Gateway to Outer Space?
264
11 Regulation of Space Activities in the Peoples Republic of China
266
11.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation
266
11.1.1 Law-Making Processes
266
11.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws
268
11.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
269
11.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
270
11.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services by Private Enterprises
270
11.2.2 Competition in Launch Services
271
11.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
272
11.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign)
272
11.3.2 Foreign Investment
274
11.3.3 Competition
276
11.3.4 Interconnections
278
11.3.5 Universal Access
278
11.3.6 Rate Regulation
279
11.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy)
280
11.3.8 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
281
11.3.8.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights
281
11.3.8.2 Mechanism of Exploiting IP Rights
282
11.3.8.3 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology
282
11.4 Other Matters
283
12 Regulation of Space Activities in South Africa
285
12.1 Introduction
285
12.2 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation
290
12.2.1 Law-Making Process
290
12.2.2 Basic Principles of National Laws and Their Interaction with International Law
291
12.2.3 Organisation of National Space Law
292
12.2.3.1 The Space Affairs Act Act 84 of 1993. (''The Space Affairs Act'')
293
12.2.3.2 The Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act Act 87 of 1993. (''The Non-Proliferation Act'')
293
12.2.3.3 The National Conventional Arms Control Act Act 41 of 2002. (''Conventional Arms Control Act'')
294
12.2.3.4 The Spatial Data Infrastructure Act Act 54 of 2003. (''Spatial Data Infrastructure Act'')
294
12.2.3.5 The Electronic Communications Act Act 36 of 2005. (''Electronic Communications Act'')
294
12.2.3.6 The Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act Act 21 of 2007. (Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act)
295
12.2.3.7 The Technology Innovation Agency Act Act 26 of 2008. (Technology Innovation Agency Act)
296
12.2.3.8 The South African National Space Agency Act Act 36 of 2008. (South African National Space Agency Act)
297
12.3 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
298
12.3.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises
298
12.3.2 Competition in Launch Services
299
12.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
299
12.4.1 The Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators, including Satellite Broadcasting
299
12.4.2 The Licensing Process
304
12.4.3 Foreign Investment
307
12.4.4 Competition
311
12.4.5 Interconnection
316
12.4.6 Universal Access
318
12.4.7 Rate Regulation
321
12.4.8 Content Regulation
321
12.4.8.1 Codes of Conduct
322
12.4.8.2 Local Content
322
12.4.8.3 TV Sports Rights
323
12.4.8.4 Advertising
324
12.4.8.5 Election Broadcasting
324
12.4.8.6 ''Must Carry'' Obligations
324
12.4.8.7 Channel Authorisation
325
12.5 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
325
12.5.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators
325
12.5.2 Distribution of Data
325
12.6 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
328
12.6.1 Acquisition and Exploitation of Intellectual Property Rights
328
12.6.1.1 Copyright Act
328
12.6.1.2 The Designs Act
329
12.6.1.3 Patents Act
329
12.6.1.4 The Trade Marks Act
329
12.6.1.5 The Spatial Data Infrastructure Act (''The SDI Act'')
330
12.6.1.6 The Intellectual Property Rights from Publicly Financed Research and Development Act (''The Intellectual Property Rights Act'')
330
12.6.1.7 The Technology Innovation Agency Act
331
12.6.2 Barriers to Trade and Transfer of Technology
331
12.7 Conclusion
332
13 Regulation of Space Activities in the Russian Federation
333
13.1 History and General Overview
333
13.1.1 Space Legislation History
333
13.1.2 Current Legislation
334
13.1.3 Hierarchy of Norms Governing Space Activities in Russia
334
13.2 Principles and Overview of the Current Programmes
335
13.3 Authorities in Charge of the Regulation of Space Activities in Russia
336
13.3.1 The President
336
13.3.2 The Government
337
13.3.3 The Federal Space Agency
337
13.3.4 The Ministry of Defence
338
13.4 Law on Space Activities: An Overview of the Provisions
339
13.4.1 Space Activities: Notion, Goals and Principles
339
13.4.2 Economic Conditions of Space Activities
341
13.4.3 Space Object: Notion, Rules Regarding Jurisdiction and Flight
341
13.4.4 Space Infrastructure
343
13.4.5 Cosmonauts
343
13.4.6 Licensing of Space Activities
344
13.4.7 Safety of Space Activities
345
13.4.8 International Cooperation
345
13.4.9 Liability
346
13.5 Other Laws and Regulations
346
13.5.1 Regulations Regarding Licensing: Procedure and Requirements
346
13.5.2 Regulation Regarding Acquisition, Use and Provision of Remote Sensing Data
347
13.5.3 Regulation Regarding the Registration of Space Objects
349
13.6 Conclusion
350
13.7 Annex
350
14 Regulation of Space Activities in Ukraine
352
14.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation
352
14.1.1 Law-Making Process
352
14.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws
353
14.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities
355
14.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
356
14.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises
356
14.2.2 Competition in Launch Services
357
14.2.3 National Security Concerns
358
14.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
359
14.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunication Operators (Both National and Foreign)
360
14.3.2 Competition
361
14.3.3 Interconnection
362
14.3.4 Universal Access
363
14.3.5 Rate Regulation
364
14.3.6 Content Regulation (Including Privacy)
365
14.3.6.1 Telecommunication Language
365
14.3.6.2 Time in the Area of Telecommunication
365
14.3.6.3 Protection of the Privacy of Telephone Communications, Telegraph and Other Correspondence, Safety of Telecommunications
365
14.3.6.4 Lands for Telecommunication Needs
366
14.3.6.5 Protection of Information About the Consumer
366
14.3.6.6 Protection of Consumers' Interests in Cases Where Operators or Providers Terminate Their Activities in Providing Telecommunication Services
366
14.3.6.7 Liability of Consumers of Telecommunication Services
367
14.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
367
14.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators
367
14.4.2 Distribution of Data
368
14.4.3 National Security Concerns
369
14.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
369
14.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights
369
14.5.2 Mechanism for Exploiting IP Rights
370
14.5.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology
370
14.5.4 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology
371
14.6 Satellite Navigation Services
372
15 Regulation of Space Activities in the United Kingdom
373
15.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulations
373
15.1.1 The United Kingdom Legal System
373
15.1.2 Background and Constitution
374
15.1.3 Organisation of National Space Activities
374
15.1.4 Law Governing Space Activity
375
15.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems)
377
15.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting
378
15.3.1 Law Governing Satellite Communications
378
15.3.2 Management of Satellite Filings by Ofcom
381
15.3.2.1 Background
381
15.3.2.2 Cost Recovery by Ofcom
382
15.3.2.3 Due Diligence Requirements by Ofcom
383
15.3.2.4 Ofcom Action When Operator Relinquishes Filing
383
15.3.2.5 Non-Planned Frequency Assignment
384
15.3.2.6 Planned Frequency Assignment
384
15.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution
385
15.4.1 National Security
385
15.4.2 Database Rights
386
15.4.3 Privacy
386
15.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology
386
15.5.1 Copyright and Database Right
386
15.5.2 Technology Transfer
387
15.6 Satellite Navigational Services
387
16 Overview of the United States Space Policy and Law
388
16.1 Introduction
388
16.2 Space Policies
389
16.2.1 Leadership
389
16.2.2 Cooperation
393
16.2.3 Peace
395
16.2.4 Defense
396
16.2.5 Science and Technology
400
16.2.6 Cost-Effectiveness
403
16.2.7 Commercialization
404
16.2.8 Environmental Protection
406
16.3 Space Law
408
16.3.1 The Regulation of Satellite Communications
408
16.3.1.1 The First Communications Systems
408
16.3.1.2 Domestic Satellites
410
16.3.1.3 Earth Stations
412
16.3.1.4 Direct Broadcasting
412
16.3.1.5 Satellite Transponder Sales
413
16.3.2 Export Controls
414
16.3.3 The Regulation of Commercial Space Launches and Facilities
416
16.4 Conclusion
418
17 Regulation of Private Launch Services in the United States
420
17.1 Introduction
420
17.2 Launch and Reentry Licensing and Regulation
420
17.2.1 General Licensing Procedures
422
17.2.2 Post-License Monitoring and Enforcement
423
17.2.3 Transferring a License
423
17.2.4 Safety Approvals
424
17.2.5 Launch and Reentry Licensing
425
17.2.5.1 Licensing Process
425
17.2.5.2 Post-License Requirements
426
17.2.6 Launch and Reentry Site Licensing
429
17.3 Competition in Launch Services
430
17.4 Export Controls
431
17.4.1 Department of State Regulations
432
17.4.2 EAA and EAR
434
18 Regulation of Satellite Communications in the United States
435
18.1 Introduction
435
18.2 Licensing of Private Communications Satellites
436
18.2.1 Fixed Satellite Service
437
18.2.1.1 Non-Geostationary Orbit
437
18.2.1.2 Geostationary Orbit
438
18.2.2 Mobile Satellite Service
440
18.2.3 Direct Broadcast Satellite Service
442
18.2.4 17/24 GHz BSS Spectrum
443
18.2.5 Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service
445
18.3 Regulation of Private Communication Satellite Operations
446
18.3.1 General Obligations for Satellite Video Programming Providers
446
18.3.1.1 Public Interest Obligations
446
18.3.1.2 Statutory Copyright Licenses
446
18.3.2 General Obligations for Telecommunications Providers
447
18.3.2.1 Common Carrier Telecommunications Authority
447
18.3.2.2 Universal Service
449
18.4 Foreign Investment
450
18.5 Competition
452
18.5.1 FCC Policies for Encouraging Competition
452
18.5.2 The State of Competition for Satellite Services
453
19 Politics and Regulation of Earth Observation Services in the United States
457
19.1 Introduction
457
19.2 Harmonization
459
19.3 Data Policies
461
19.3.1 Data Access
461
19.3.2 Data Protection
463
19.3.3 Data Preservation
463
19.3.4 Data Standards
465
19.4 Public and Commercial Uses
466
19.5 National Security and Commercial Uses
466
19.6 Regulation and Licensing of Commercial Remote Sensing
469
19.7 Conclusions
471
20 Regulation of Global Navigation and Positioning Services in the United States
473
20.1 Introduction: The Global Positioning System
473
20.2 GNSS Availability
473
20.3 U.S. National GNSS Institutions
474
20.4 Liability Regime
476
20.5 Conclusion
479
21 State and Municipal Regulation of the Aerospace Industry in the United States
480
21.1 Introduction
480
21.2 Space Commissions
482
21.3 Space Commissions and Spaceports
484
21.4 Spaceport Regulation Independent of a Space Commission
487
21.5 Business Development Programs
490
21.5.1 Financial Assistance for a Specific Company
490
21.5.2 Financial Assistance for Aerospace Projects
490
21.5.3 Promotion of Space Business
492
21.5.4 Tax Incentives for Aerospace Activities
493
21.5.5 Regulation of Specific Aerospace Industry Segments
494
21.5.6 Miscellaneous Statutory References
495
Index
497
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