TASER® Conducted Electrical Weapons: Physiology, Pathology, and Law

Contents

Contributors

Introduction

Conducted Electrical Weapons: A User’s Perspective

1.1 Emergence of Conducted Electrical Weapons

1.2 Resisting Arrest and Excited Delirium

1.3 Tragedy Leads to Change

1.4 Use of Force and Nonlethal Weapons

1.5 Conclusion

Notes

The Scientific History

2.1 The Giants of Electricity and Bioelectricity

2.1.1 von Guericke

2.1.2 Galvani

2.1.3 Benjamin Franklin

2.1.4 Coulomb

2.1.5 Oersted

2.1.6 Ampere

2.1.7 Faraday

2.1.8 du Bois-Reymond

2.2 D’Arsonval

2.2.1 The Edison Versus Tesla Arena

2.2.2 20th Century Electrophysiology

2.2.3 The Electric Fence

2.3 Cover’s Challenges

References

Conducted Electrical Weapons and Resolution of Use-of-Force Encounters

3.1 Legal Review

3.1.1 Defining Police Use of Force

3.1.2 How the US Courts Have Framed Police Use of Force

3.1.3 The Use of Force Continuum

3.1.4 Measuring Police Use of Force

3.1.5 Conducted Electrical Weapons

3.2 CEW Effectiveness and Officer/Suspect Injuries

3.2.1 The Use of Force Report

3.2.2 Data Collection

3.2.3 Analysis of the Data

3.2.4 Application of the CEW

3.2.5 CEW Drive-Stun (Touch-Stun)

3.2.6 Suspect and Officer Injuries

3.2.7 CEW’s Potential to Reduce Injuries

3.3 Limitations

3.4 Conclusion

Notes

Nonlethal Weapons: The Broader Context

References

Transcutaneous Muscle Stimulation

5.1 The TASER CEW Waveforms

5.2 Theory and Applications of Muscle Stimulation by Electric Fields and Currents

5.2.1 Electrical Stimulation of Motor and Sensory Nerves

5.2.2 Computer Modeling of the M26 and X26 Waveforms and Expected Stimulation of Peripheral Motor Nerves as a Function of Waveform Shape

5.2.3 Skeletal Muscle Force Recruitment by Electrical Stimulation

5.3 Conclusions and Summary

References

Current Flow in the Human Body

6.1 Modeling of CEW Currents in the Human Body

6.1.1 Skeletal Muscle Activation by Pulsed Electric Fields

6.1.2 FE Modeling of J and E Distributions for Neuromuscular Capture

6.1.3 FE Modeling of J and E Distributions in the Heart

6.1.4 Neuromuscular Stimulation

6.1.5 Current Density Distributions in the Heart

6.1.6 Implantable Pacemakers

6.2 Discussion

References

Animal Studies

7.1 Stun Guns Applied to Exposed Pig Hearts

7.2 High Multiples of TASER CEW Charge Applied to Skin of Pigs

7.3 Cocaine Effect on VF Threshold

7.4 Acute Epinephrine Effects

7.5 Effects of 80-second Exposures

7.6 Effect of Dart-to-Heart Distance

7.7 Effects on pH and SpO2

7.8 Effects with No Acidosis

7.9 Applying the Animal Data

7.10 Conclusions

References

CEW Research Models: Animal and Human Studies

8.1 Animal Versus Human

8.2 Animal Studies

8.3 Human Studies

References

Cardiac Arrhythmias

9.1 Causes of Sudden Cardiac Death

9.2 Electrical Stimulation of an Ectopic Heartbeat

9.3 Fundamental Law of Electrostimulation

9.4 Electrical Stimulation of Immediate VF

9.5 Electrical Stimulation of Delayed VF

9.6 Conclusion

References

Electrocardiographic Effects of the CEW

10.1 Human Data

10.2 Animal Data

10.3 Conclusion

References

Serum and Skin Effects of CEW Application

11.1 Physiology Review

11.2 Biomarker Research

11.2.1 Troponin I

11.2.2 Potassium

11.2.3 Lactate

11.2.4 Myoglobin and Creatine Phosphokinase

11.3 Conclusion

References

Echocardiographic Effects of the CEW

12.1 Animal Studies

12.2 Human Studies

12.3 Conclusions

References

Rhabdomyolysis

13.1 Physiology of Rhabdomyolysis

13.2 Relationship of Rhabdomyolysis with CEW Exposure

13.2.1 Animal Data

13.2.2 Human Data

13.3 Conclusion

References

Effects of CEWs on Respiration

14.1 Respiratory Physiology

14.1.1 Cellular Respiration

14.1.2 Anatomy

14.2 The CEW Interaction

14.2.1 Theory of Injury

14.2.2 Animal Data with CEW Exposure

14.2.3 Human Data

14.3 Conclusion

References

Neuroendocrine Effects of CEWs

15.1 Human Stress Response

15.2 The Possible Role of the CEW

15.3 Conclusion

References

Electroporation of Cardiac and Nerve Cells

16.1 Cellular Responses to Strong Electric Fields

16.2 Electroporation Assessment via Shock-Induced Changes of Transmembrane Action Potential Morphology

16.3 Imaging Electroporation Damage Patterns via Membrane Impermeable Fluorescent Dyes

16.4 CEW Currents

16.5 Conclusion

References

Eye and Head Injuries

17.1 Eye and Adnexal Anatomy

17.2 Eye Trauma

17.3 Eye Injuries by Conductive Electrical Weapons

17.4 Management of CEW Ocular Injuries

17.5 Head Injuries

17.6 Conclusion

References

CEW Effects with Illegal Stimulant Intoxication

References

Alcohol and the CEW

19.1 Alcohol Physiology

19.2 Alcohol and CEW

19.3 Studies of Alcohol and CEW Use

19.4 Conclusion

References

Conducted Electrical Weapons and Implantable Cardiac Devices

20.1 Case Reports

20.2 Animal Studies

20.3 Conclusions

References

Risk Management and the CEW

21.1 On-Duty Injuries

21.2 Number of Work Days Lost Due to ODI

21.3 Additional Costs

21.4 Sources of Injuries

21.5 Overall Annual ODI Cost

21.6 Potential Savings of Full CEW Deployment

21.7 Implementation

21.7.1 Why Include All These Specialists in the Community?

The New York City Experience

22.1 National Trends and Experience

22.1.1 Effectiveness

22.1.2 Safety

22.2 The NYPD Data

22.2.1 Research Design and Data

22.2.2 Analysis

22.2.3 Limitations

22.3 Results

22.3.1 Prevalence

22.3.2 Suspects

22.3.2.1 Demographics

22.3.2.2 Suspects’ Emotional and Physical State

22.3.2.3 Possession of Weapons

22.3.2.4 Physical Violence

22.3.2.5 Officer Characteristics

22.3.3 Incidents

22.3.3.1 Types of Encounters

22.3.3.2 TASER CEW Deployment

22.3.4 Outcomes

22.3.4.1 Reducing the Potential for a Violent Outcome

22.3.4.2 Fatalities

22.3.5 Discussion

22.4 Conclusions

References

Impact of CEW and Other Types of Force and Resistance on Officer and Suspect Injuries

23.1 Use of Force-Related Injuries

23.1.1 Suspect Injury

23.1.2 Officer Injury

23.1.3 The Impact of Nonlethal Weapons on Injuries

23.1.4 OC Spray

23.1.5 Conducted Electrical Weapons

23.2 Data and Methods

23.2.1 Richland County Sheriff’s Department (RCSD)

23.2.2 RCSD Variables

23.2.3 RCSD Models

23.2.4 Miami-Dade Police Department (MDPD)

23.2.5 DPD Variables

23.2.6 MDPD Models

23.3 Findings

23.3.1 RCSD Results

23.3.2 MDPD Results

23.4 Discussion

23.4.1 Future Research Needs

References

Field Statistics Overview

24.1 Total Human Exposures

24.1.1 Field Usage Exposures

24.1.2 Training Exposures

24.1.3 Impact on Officer and Suspect Injuries

24.1.4 Officer Injuries

24.1.5 Suspect Injuries

24.2 Are Multiple Exposures More Dangerous?

24.3 How Often Is the CEW Blamed as a Cause of Death?

24.3.1 Possible Areas for Confusion

24.3.1.1 Electrocution

24.3.1.2 Long Duration Shocks

24.3.1.3 Effects of Electrical Current on Breathing

24.3.1.4 Drug Dysynergies

24.3.1.5 Autopsy Analysis

24.4 Results

24.5 Conclusions

References

Sudden In-Custody Death

25.1 Historical Perspective

25.2 Associated and Unassociated Factors

25.2.1 Conducted Electrical Weapons

25.2.2 Pepper (Capsicum) Spray

25.2.3 Stimulant Drugs

25.2.4 Underlying Cardiac Disease

25.2.5 Restraint Procedures and Positional Asphyxia

25.2.6 Dehydration, Hyperthermia, and Metabolic Acidosis

25.2.7 Gender, Weight, and Ethnicity

25.3 Conclusions

References

Stimulant Abuse and Sudden Cardiac Death

26.1 Myocardial Remodeling

26.2 Myocardial Hypertrophy and Ischemic Sudden Death

26.3 Myocardial Hypertrophy and QT dispersion

26.4 The Theory of ‘‘Multiple Hits’’

26.5 Excited Delirium and Sudden Death

26.6 Conclusions

References

The Systemic Role of Illicit Drugs and Their Toxicology

27.1 Cocaine

27.1.1 Mechanism of Action

27.2 Methamphetamine

27.2.1 Mechanism of Action

27.3 Phencyclidine

27.3.1 Mechanism of Action

27.4 Excited Delirium Syndrome

27.4.1 Excited Delirium Syndrome: Mechanism of Death

27.4.2 Hypokalemia and Sudden Cardiac Death

27.4.2.1 The Role of Illicit Drugs

27.5 Specimen Collection

27.5.1 Urine

27.5.2 Blood

27.5.3 Vitreous Humor

27.5.4 Tissue and Hair

27.5.4.1 Hair

27.5.5 Specimen Stability

27.6 Drug Screening

References

Excited Delirium Syndrome

28.1 Restraint-Related Death

28.2 Cause of Death in EDS

28.2.1 Polymorphism

28.2.2 Postexercise Peril

28.2.3 Drugs

28.2.4 Treatment of Excited Delirium

28.3 Terminology Confusion

References

Biochemical Brain Markers in Excited Delirium Deaths

29.1 Differential Diagnosis of Drug-Induced Psychotic Disorders

29.2 Cocaine Delirium and Sudden Death

29.3 Defective Signaling at the Dopamine Synapse

29.4 Heath Shock Proteins and Hyperthermia

29.5 Conclusions

References

Sudden Unexpected Death in Custody (SUDIC)

30.1 Before the Autopsy

30.1.1 Scene Where Vital Signs Were Lost

30.1.2 Examination at the Hospital

30.2 The Autopsy

30.2.1 Some Special Issues

30.3 Case Study

30.4 Death Certification

30.5 Conclusion

References

Legal Basics for the CEW

31.1 General Accountability Themes

31.2 Accountability Sanctions

31.2.1 Criminal Sanctions

31.2.2 Civil Accountability

31.2.3 Administrative Accountability

31.3 CEW Usage by Non-LEOs

31.3.1 Use of a CEW by a Private Person

31.3.2 Nonsworn LEOs (Private Security Officers)

31.4 Government Empowered CEW Use

31.4.1 Constitutional Use of Force Standards

31.4.1.1 ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard of the 4th Amendment

31.4.1.2 ‘‘Cruel and Unusual Punishment’’ Standard of the 8th Amendment

31.4.1.3 ‘‘Shocking to the Conscience’’ Standard of the 14th Amendment

31.5 US Appellate Court CEW Case Law

31.5.1 4th Amendment ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard

31.5.1.1 CEW Use on a Restrained Criminal Suspect

31.5.1.2 Related Pepper Spray Cases

31.5.2 8th Amendment ‘‘Cruel and Unusual Punishment’’ Standard

31.5.3 14th Amendment ‘‘Shocking to the Conscience’’ Standard

31.6 US Lower Court CEW Cases

31.6.1 4th Amendment ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard

31.6.1.1 CEW Use Found Reasonable

31.6.1.2 CEW Use Found Potentially Unreasonable

31.6.2 8th and 14th Amendment Cases

31.7 Conclusions

Notes

Science and Logic Meet the Law

32.1 Case Study: The Graduation Party

32.1.1 What Killed Richard?

32.1.2 Facts and Evidence for the Juror

32.1.3 Experts and Their Testimonies

32.2 The Daubert Trilogy

32.2.1 Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc

32.2.2 General Electric Co. v. Joiner

32.2.3 Kuhmo Tire, Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael

32.2.4 Federal Rules of Evidence

32.2.5 Education of the Jury

32.2.5.1 CSI Effect

32.3 Scientific Research

32.3.1 Literature Review

32.3.2 Quantitative Research

32.3.3 Qualitative Research

32.4 Theories, Laws, and Models

32.4.1 Theories

32.4.2 Models

32.4.3 Laws

32.5 The Scientific Method

32.5.1 Human Subject Research Guidelines

32.5.2 Population and Sample Size

32.5.3 Reliability and Validity

32.5.4 Statistical Versus Clinical Significance

32.5.5 Clinical (Practical) Significance

32.5.6 Rate of Error

32.5.7 Fallacies

32.5.8 Causation

32.5.9 Temporality as Causation

32.5.9.1 Felony Murder Rule Exception

32.5.9.2 Correlation as Causation

32.5.9.3 Association as Causation

32.5.9.4 Necessary and Sufficient for Causation

32.6 Back to the Case Study

32.6.1 Applying Science and Law to the Case Study

32.6.2 Claims Versus Critical Thinking

32.6.3 The ‘‘Straw’’ Causation Theory

32.6.4 Temporal or Association Causation Theory

32.6.5 Probabilistic Causation

32.6.6 It Is in Print Fallacy

32.6.7 Bias and Causation Theory

32.6.8 Guessing as a Causation Theory

32.7 Conclusions

References

Appendix A Excited Delirium Checklist

Appendix B Electrocution Diagnosis Checklist

Index