Safety of Meat and Processed Meat

Food Microbiology and Food Safety

Preface

Contents

Contributors

Part 1: Biological Hazards in Meat and Processed Meats

Main Concerns of Pathogenic Microorganisms in Meat

Introduction

Salmonella

Campylobacter

Yersinia

Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC)

Listeria

Staphylococcus aureus

Clostridia

Control of Microbial Foodborne Pathogens in the Meat Chain

Occurrence of Foodborne Pathogens in the Meat Chain

Meat Safety at Pre-harvest Level

Prevention of Recycling of Pathogens in the Environment

Prevention of Introduction and/or Spread of Pathogens Within the Farm

Prevention of Ingestion of Pathogens by Animals

Suppression of Pathogens Within Animal Gastrointestinal Tracts

Enhancement of Animal Host Response

Meat safety at Harvest Level

Prevention/Reduction of Pathogen Spread During Transport and Lairaging

Prevention/Reduction of Global Cross-Contamination via Abattoir Environment

Prevention/Reduction of Carcass Contamination on the Slaughterline

Elimination from and/or Suppression of Pathogens on Final Carcasses

Prevention/Reduction of Contamination During Meat Boning/Cutting

Meat Safety at Post-Harvest Level

Further Processing of Meat

Meat Products at Catering-Consumer Levels

General Principles of Meat Safety Management

References

Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Meat

Introduction

Escherichia coli O157:H7

Human Health Concerns with E. coli O157:H7

History of E. coli O157:H7 in Meat Industry

Sources of E. coli O157:H7 Cross-Contamination

Survival of E. coli O157:H7

Physiology of Whole and Ground Meat Products

Enhanced and Mechanically Tenderized Meat Concerns

Intervention Strategies

Conclusion

References

Insights into Fresh Meat Spoilage

Development of Spoilage Microbiota

Spoilage Evaluation and Prediction

Strategies for Spoilage Control

References

Mycotoxins in Meat and Processed Meat Products

Introduction

Aflatoxins

Introduction

Origin and Toxicological Properties

Synthesis

Toxicity

Regulation

Contamination of Meat and Meat Products

Metabolism sulfo-conjugated forms of AFM1, AFQ1 and AFP1 (for review Guengerich et al., 1998)

Residual Persistence in Meat

Synthesis During Meat Processing

Ochratoxin A

Introduction

Origin and Toxicological Properties

Synthesis

Toxicity

Regulation

Contamination of Meat and Meat Products

Metabolism (for review, see Ringot, Chango, Schneider, & Larondelle, 2006)

Residual Persistence

Synthesis During Meat Processing

Zearalenone

Introduction

Origin and Toxicological Properties

Synthesis

Toxicity

Regulation

Contamination of Meat and Meat Products

Metabolism

Residual Contamination of Meat

Synthesis During Meat Processing

Trichothecenes

Introduction

Origin and Toxicological Properties

Synthesis

Toxicity

Regulation

Contamination of Meat and Meat Products

Metabolism

Residual Contamination of Meat

Synthesis During Meat Processing

Fumonisins

Introduction

Origin and Toxicological Properties

Synthesis

Toxicity

Regulation

Contamination of Meat and Meat Products

Metabolism

Residual Contamination of Meat

Synthesis During Meat Processing

Other Toxins

Citrinin

Origin and Toxicity

Metabolism and Meat Contamination

Cyclopiazonic Acid

Origin and Toxicity

Metabolism and Meat Contamination

Conclusion

References

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy and Meat Safety

Introduction

The Molecular Nature of Prion Diseases

Epidemiology of Variant CJD and Other Human TSEs

Variant CJD

Risk Factors for Variant CJD

Clinical Features of vCJD and Other Human TSEs

Diagnosis of vCJD and Other Human TSEs

BSE Epidemic and Relationship to Variant CJD

Public Health Measures Implemented to Reduce Transmission of BSE

Prevention of Spread of BSE Between Animals

Detection of BSE in Cattle

The Removal of High-Risk Material from the Food Chain

Prevention of Transmission of BSE from Cattle to Humans

Treatment of Human Prion Diseases

Other Animal TSEs and the Risk to Humans

Discussion

References

Part 2: Decontamination and/or Protection Technologies for Meat Processing

Strategies for On-Line Decontamination of Carcasses

Introduction

Interventions Before Hide Removal

Cleaning of Live Animals

Cleaning of Stunned Animals

Chemical Dehairing

Interventions During and After Hide Removal But Before Evisceration

Hide Removal

Knife Trimming

Spot-Cleaning by Steam/Water Vacuuming

Preevisceration Decontamination

Interventions During and After Evisceration

Bung Tying and Evisceration

Carcass Splitting

Water Spray Washing

Hot Water Treatment

Decontamination with Steam

Spraying with Chemical Antimicrobials

Chlorine

Chlorine Dioxide

Organic Acids

Other Chemical Antimicrobials

Other Decontamination Processes

Carcass Chilling

Carcass Spraying Before Fabrication

Multiple Hurdle Approach

Future Trends

References

Advanced Decontamination Technologies: High Hydrostatic Pressure on Meat Products

Introduction

General Effects of HHP

Effect of HHP on Microorganisms

High Hydrostatic Treatments to Improve the Food Safety of Different Types of Meat Products

Raw Meats

Cured Meat Products

Cooked Meat Products

Fermented Meat Products

Combined Hurdles: Antimicrobials and High Hydrostatic Pressure

Final Conclusions

References

Advanced Decontamination Technologies: Irradiation

Introduction

Food Irradiation

Principles of Irradiation

Microcidal Effect of Irradiation

Effects of Irradiation on Meat Quality

Prevention of Quality Changes in Irradiated Meat

Toxicity and Health Concerns

Further Research Needed

References

Control of Thermal Meat Processing

Thermal Processing

Thermal Inactivation Studies

Factors Affecting Thermal Inactivation of Pathogens in Meat and Poultry Products

Product’s Characteristics

Pathogen’s Characteristics

Thermal Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens in Meat and Poultry Products

Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella in Meat

Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella in Poultry

Thermal Inactivation of L. monocytogenes in Meat

Thermal Inactivation of L. monocytogenes in Poultry

Thermal Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in Meat

Thermal Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in Poultry

Control of Foodborne Pathogens in RTE Meat and Poultry Products

Air Impingement Oven Cooking

Steam or Hot-Water Pasteurization

Real-Time Control

References

Antimicrobials Treatment

Introduction

Bacteriocins

Classification of Bacteriocins

Mode of Action, Molecular and Biochemical Characterization of Bacteriocins

Applications of Bacteriocins in Foods

Dairy Products

Meat Products

Fishery Products

Fermented Vegetables

Factors Limiting Bacteriocins Efficiency in Foods

Future Considerations on Bacteriocins Applications in Foods

Naturally Occurring Compounds from Plants

Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Essential Oils in Foods

Applications of EOs in Meat and Meat Products

Direct Application of EOs in the Product

Application of Essential Oils in Active Packaging

Chemical GRAS Compounds in Meat and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products

References

Biopreservation

Introduction

Methods of Biopreservation

Biopreservation by Lactic Acid Bacteria

Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria

Mode of Action of Bacteriocins

Future Perspectives

References

Oxidative Changes and Their Control in Meat and Meat Products

Introduction

Chemical Reactions of Oxygen

Induction by Light

Induction by Metal Ions

Induction by Enzymes

Lipid Oxidation in Meat

Rancidity

Warmed-Over Flavor

Cholesterol Oxides

Prevention of Lipid Oxidation in Meat

Vitamin E Supplementation

Protection in Meat

Protection in Meat Products

Other Measures Against Oxidation

Packaging

Maillard Reaction Products

Chelating Agents

Nitrite/Nitrate

Smoking

Synthetic Antioxidants

Natural Antioxidants

Concluding Remarks

References

Part 3: Non-Biological Residues and Contaminants in Meat and Processed Meats

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoked Meats

Introduction

Principles of Smoking

Traditional Procedures of Smoking

Alternatives to Traditional Smoking Procedures

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

Behavior of PAH in an Organism

Legislative Aspects and International Normalization of PAH in Smoked Meat and Liquid Smoke Flavor

Analysis of PAH

Sample Preparation

Sample Treatment of Smoked Meat

Sample Treatment of Liquid Smoke Flavors

Pre-Separation Procedures

Thin Layer Chromatography

Gas Chromatography

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

Comparison of Gas Chromatography and High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

Occurrence of PAH

References

Veterinary Drugs and Growth Promoters Residues in Meat and Processed Meats

Introduction

Main Groups of Substances with Anabolic Effect and Veterinary Drugs

Substances with Anabolic Effect

Steroid Hormones and Other Substances Having Hormonal Action

Stilbenes

Antithyroid Agents

Glucocorticoids

beta-Agonists

Antimicrobial and Antibiotic Drugs

Sulfonamides

beta-Lactams

Tetracyclines

Aminoglycosides

Macrolides

Quinolones

Peptides

Amphenicols

Carbadox and Olaquindox

Nitrofurans

Other Veterinary Drugs

Antihelmintic Agents

Anticoccidials, Including Nitroimidazoles

Sedatives

Corticoids

Causes of Concern Due to the Presence of Residues in Meat

Control of Veterinary Drugs and Growth Promoters Residues in Meat

References

Priority Environmental Chemical Contaminants in Meat

Introduction

Prioritization of Chemical Contaminants in Meat

Factors Influencing the Exposure of Meat Animals to Chemical Contaminants

From Residues Monitoring Plans to Intake Assessment

Organochlorine Pesticides

Non-dioxin-Like Polychlorobiphenyls (NDL-PCBs)

Polychlorodibenzodioxins, Polychlorodibenzofurans and Dioxin-Like PCB (PCDDs, PCDFs and DL-PCBs)

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)

Polyfluorinated Alkylated Substances (PFAS)

Conclusions

References

Part 4: Current Methodologies for the Detection of Contaminants in Meat and Processed Meats

Real-Time PCR Methods for Detection of Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens in Meat and Meat Products

Introduction

PCR: Principles and Applications

Critical Features of a PCR-Based Method

The International Standard Performance Characteristics

Sample Preparation

Controls

Quantitative Capacity

Real-Time PCR Methods for the Principal Foodborne Pathogens in Meat and Meat Products

Salmonella

Campylobacter spp.

Shiga-Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli

Listeria monocytogenes

Future Perspective

References

Detecting and Tracking Emerging Pathogenic and Spoilage Bacteria from Farm to Fork

Introduction

Emergent Pathogens

Emergent Spoilage Micro-organisms

Detecting Micro-organisms on Meat

Total Bacterial Counts

Detecting Specific Pathogens or Spoilage Micro-organisms

Tracking Micro-organisms

Tools for Tracking Bacteria

Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

Multi-locus Sequence Typing (MLST)

Multi-locus Variance Analysis(MLVA)

Micro-arrays

Conclusion

References

Molecular Analysis of Pathogenic Bacteria and Their Toxins

Introduction

Non-nucleic Acid Typing Methods

Multi-locus Enzyme Electrophoresis-MLEE

Nucleic Acid Typing Methods

Plasmid Analysis

Amplification-Based Methods

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Nested PCR

Real-Time PCR

Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA

Repetitive Extragenic Palindromic PCR

Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus PCR

Polymorphic Amplified Typing Sequences

Variable Number Tandem Repeat-(VNTR) and Multi-locus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA)

Restriction Endonuclease-Based Methods

Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

Insertion Sequence RFLP

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism

Infrequent Restriction Site PCR

Sequence-Based Typing Methods

Multi-locus Sequence Typing

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis

Genome Sequencing and Comparative Genomics

Hybridization Techniques

DNA Microarrays

Conclusions

References

Methodologies for the Detection of BSE Risk Material in Meat and Meat Products

Introduction

Markers from the Lipid Fraction

Cholesterol

Fatty Acids (FAs, FAMEs)

Markers from the Protein Fraction

Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE)

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)

Other Proteins

Immunohistology

Prion Protein (PrPC, PrPSc)

BSE-Risk Markers from the Nucleic Acid Fraction

Conclusion

References

GMO Detection

Introduction

Basic Legislative Approaches to GMOs and GM Products

Current Approaches to GMO Analysis

Sampling of Food/Feed Products

Preparation of an Analytical Sample (Test Portion)

DNA Isolation

GMO Identification

GMO Quantification

Identification of Unapproved GMOs

Quality Control

Conclusions

References

Part 5: Risk Assessment and Regulations on Meat Safety

Principles of Predictive Modeling

Introduction

Primary Models

Growth Models

Survival Models

Secondary Models

Secondary Models for Growth Rate

Models Based on the Gamma Concept

Polynomial Models

Other Models

Other Secondary Models

Secondary Models for Lag Time

Secondary Models for Inactivation

Probability Models

Applications of Predictive Modeling

The Challenge of Modeling Microbial Dynamics in Food Under Realistic Conditions

Quantitative Microbiology Tools

Predictive Models for Quantitative Risk Assessment

Conclusion

References

Predictive Modeling of Pathogen Growth in Cooked Meats

Introduction

Foodborne Pathogens of Significance in Ready-to-Eat Meat and Poultry Products

Clostridium botulinum

Clostridium perfringens

Bacillus cereus

Listeria monocytogenes

Predictive Models to Describe Pathogen Growth in Cooked Meats

Primary Models

Secondary Models

Modified Ratkowsky Model

Dynamic Model

Baranyi Model-An Innovative Approach

Growth/No Growth Models

Predictive Models for Pathogens of Significance in Cooked Meats

C. botulinum Predictive Models for Cooked Meats

C. perfringens Predictive Models for Cooked Meats

B. cereus Predictive Models for Cooked Meats

L. monocytogenes Predictive Models for Cooked Meats

Conclusions

References

Microbiological Quantitative Risk Assessment

Introduction

Peer-Reviewed QMRAs

National and International QMRAs

Conclusions

References

Quantitative Risk Assessment of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

Introduction

Risk Assessment of BSE

Quantitative Approaches for the Food Safety Risk Assessment of BSE

Pathway Modeling Approach

Epidemiological Modeling Approach

Examples

Stochastic Modeling Approach

Model Structure

Modeling Infectivity of Cattle at Slaughter

Input Parameters

Age at Infection

Incubation Period

Age at Slaughter

Infectivity at Clinical Stage

Doubling Time

Detection Limit of Infectivity by Test

Outputs

Simulation-Based Epidemiological Modeling Approach

Conclusions

References

Regulations on Meat Hygiene and Safety in the European Union

Introduction

Reasons for Revising the Regulatory Aspects in the EU

General Food Law

Legislation on Food Hygiene

Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004

Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004

Other Legislation as Part of the Hygiene Package

Council Directive 2002/99/EC

Directive 2004/41/EC

Legislation on Official Controls

Regulation (EC) No. 882/2004(Official Feed and Food Controls)8

Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004

Implementing Measures of the Hygiene Package

Implementing Measures

Transitional Arrangements

Examination of Meat for Trichinella Parasites

Regulation on Microbiological Criteria for Foodstuffs

Guidance Documents for the Legislation on Food Hygiene

Related Food Safety Legislation

Legislation on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies

Legislation on Animal By-Products

Legislation on Residues

Legislation on Contaminants

Other Legislation

International Aspects

Future Legislative Work

Treatment to Remove Surface Contamination

Risk-Based Meat Inspection

Report to the European Parliament and the Council

Implications of the New Legislation for the Official Veterinarian

Implications of the New Legislation for the Private Veterinarian

References

Regulations on Meat Hygiene in the USA

Introduction

Background on the US Meat Industry

Consumer Views on Meat Hygiene in the US

The Federal Meat Inspection Act of the US

The Regulatory Process

Regulatory Enforcement Actions

Development and Use of Performance Standards by FSIS

Salmonella Performance Standards

Zero-Tolerance Standard for E. coli O157:H7

Stabilization/Cooling Performance Standards

Zero-Tolerance Standard for Listeria monocytogenes in RTE Foods

L. monocytogenes at Retail Delis

Verification Sampling and Testing

Risk-Based Inspection

Food Safety Research on Meat Hygiene

Inspection Resources for Ensuring Meat Hygiene in the US

Science-Based vs. Politically-Based Regulations

Conclusions

References

Index