Suchen und Finden
Preface
5
Acknowledgements
7
Contents
8
About our Authors
10
Contributors
17
Renewable and Solar Energy Technologies: Energy and Environmental Issues
20
1.1 Introduction
20
1.2 Hydroelectric Power
21
1.3 Biomass Energy
23
1.4 Wind Power
24
1.5 Solar Thermal Conversion Systems
25
1.6 Photovoltaic Systems
26
1.7 Geothermal Systems
27
1.8 Biogas
28
1.9 Ethanol and Energy Inputs
28
1.10 Grasslands and Celulosic Ethanol
30
1.11 Methanol and Vegetable Oils
30
1.12 Transition to Renewable Energy
31
1.13 Conclusion
32
References
33
Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?
37
2.1 Introduction
37
2.2 Background
40
2.3 Plan of Attack
45
2.4 Efficiency of Cellulosic Ethanol Refineries
46
2.5 Where will the Agrofuel Biomass Come from?
51
2.6 Conclusions
62
References
62
Appendix 1: Ecosystem Definition and Properties
64
Appendix 2: Mass Balance of Carbon in an Ecosystem
66
Appendix 3: Environmental Controls on Net
70
Primary Productivity
70
Glossary
72
A Review of the Economic Rewards and Risks of Ethanol Production
74
3.1 Introduction
74
3.2 Measuring and Mismeasuring Biofuels Economic Impacts
76
3.3 Ethanol Production Economic Opportunities and Offsets
81
3.4 Bioenergy Promotion and the Overall Sustainability
89
of Rural Economies
89
References
94
Subsidies to Ethanol in the United States
96
Acronyms & abbreviations
97
4.1 Introduction
97
4.2 Evolution of Federal Policies Supporting Liquid Biofuels
99
4.3 Current Policies Supporting Ethanol
101
4.4 Aggregate Support to Ethanol
113
4.5 Pending Legislation
119
4.6 Conclusions
120
References
122
Peak Oil, EROI, Investments and the Economy in an Uncertain Future
126
5.1 Introduction
127
5.2 The Age of Petroleum
127
5.3 How much Oil will we be able to Extract?
129
5.4 Decreasing Energy Return on Investment
134
5.5 The Balloon Graph
136
5.6 Economic Impacts of Peak Oil and Decreasing EROI
138
5.7 The “Cheese Slicer” Model
139
5.8 Results of Simulation
144
5.9 Discussion
144
5.10 Conclusion
147
References
147
Wind Power: Benefits and Limitations
150
6.1 Introduction
150
6.2 The Power Density of Electricity from Wind Turbines
152
6.3 Producing the Output of a Power Station from Wind Power
153
6.4 The Problem of Assessing Energy with Respect to Wind Turbines
154
6.5 The Implications of the Uncontrollable Nature of the Output from Wind Turbines
155
6.6 The Problems of Operating in Harness with Wind Turbines
156
6.7 Alternatives toWind Power
157
6.8 The Problems of Storage
158
6.9 The Problem of ‘Liquid’ Fuel in a Fossil-Fuel-Free Society
163
6.10 Learning from Experience (Denmark)
164
6.11 Making Realistic Assessments of the Cost ofWind Power
165
6.12 Conclusion
165
Notes
166
References
168
Renewable Diesel
169
7.1 Introduction
169
7.2 The Diesel Engine
170
7.3 Ecological Limits
170
7.4 Straight Vegetable Oil
172
7.5 Biodiesel
172
7.6 Green Diesel
175
7.7 Feed Stocks
177
7.8 Conclusions
183
7.9 Conversion Factors and Calculations
183
References
185
Complex Systems Thinking and Renewable Energy Systems
188
8.1 Theoretical Issues: The Problems Faced by Energy Analysis
189
8.2 Basic Concepts of Bioeconomics
198
8.3 Using the MuSIASEM Approach to Check the Viability of Alternative Energy Sources: An Application to Biofuels
209
8.4 Conclusion
220
References
224
Sugarcane and Ethanol Production and Carbon Dioxide Balances
229
9.1 Introduction
229
9.2 The “Green” Promise
230
9.3 CO2 Emissions of Sugarcane Ethanol
230
9.4 Gasoline Versus Ethanol
233
9.5 Bagasse as a Source of Energy
233
9.6 Pre-Harvest Burning of Sugarcane and Mechanical Harvest
235
9.7 Distillery Wastes
236
9.8 Possible Additional Sources of Methane
237
9.9 CO2 Mitigation
237
9.10 Variations of CO2 Emissions Calculations
238
9.11 A Trend in the Near Future
239
9.12 Environmental Impacts Versus CO2 Emissions
240
9.13 Conclusions
241
References
242
Biomass Fuel Cycle Boundaries and Parameters: Current Practice and Proposed Methodology
245
Acronyms & abbreviations
245
10.1 Introduction
246
10.2 BFC Analysis Methodology: A Modular Model Approach
246
10.3 BFC Fuel and Net Energy Balance Definitions
254
10.4 BFC Models
256
10.5 Other Considerations
269
References
270
Our Food and Fuel Future
272
11.1 Introduction
273
11.2 Price and Availability of Traditional Fuels
273
11.3 Alternative Sources of Energy
280
11.4 GreenhouseWarming and its Connections
294
11.5 Political and Social Conditions, Especially
298
in the United States
298
11.6 Conclusions
302
References
305
A Framework for Energy Alternatives: Net Energy, Liebig’s Law and Multi-criteria Analysis
308
12.1 Introduction
308
12.2 Net Energy Analysis
309
12.3 An Introduction to EROI – Energy Return on Investment
309
12.4 Humans and Energy Gain
310
12.5 Current Energy Gain
311
12.6 An Energy Theory of Value
312
12.7 Why is Net Energy Important?
312
12.8 Net Energy and Energy Quality
313
12.9 Energy Return on Investment – Towards a Consistent Framework
315
12.10 A Framework for Analyzing EROI
318
12.11 Non-Energy Inputs
319
12.12 Non-Energy Outputs
321
12.13 Non-Market Impacts
321
12.14 A Summary of Methodologies
322
12.15 A Unifying EROI Framework
323
12.16 Liebig’s Law, Multi-Criteria Analysis, and Energy from Biofuels
325
12.17 Conclusion
328
References
329
Bio-Ethanol Production in Brazil
333
13.1 Historical Introduction
334
13.2 The Sugarcane Crop in Brazil
337
13.3 Environmental Impact
342
13.4 Labour Conditions
362
13.5 Conclusions
363
References
365
Ethanol Production: Energy and Economic Issues Related to U.S. and Brazilian Sugarcane
369
14.1 Introduction
369
14.2 Energy Inputs in Sugarcane Production
370
14.3 Energy Inputs in Fermentation/Distillation
372
14.4 Energy Yield
374
14.5 Economic Costs
374
14.6 Land Use in the U.S.
375
14.7 Ethanol Production and Use in Brazil
376
14.8 Environmental Impacts
376
14.9 Air Pollution
377
14.10 Food Security
378
14.11 Food versus the Fuel Issue
378
14.12 Summary
379
References
380
Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean
384
15.1 Introduction
384
15.2 Energy Inputs in Corn Production
385
15.3 Cellulosic Ethanol
391
15.4 Switchgrass Production of Ethanol
393
15.5 Wood Cellulose Conversion into Ethanol
394
15.6 Biodiesel Production
397
15.7 Soybean Conversion into Biodiesel
397
15.8 Canola Conversion into Biodiesel
399
15.9 Conclusion
400
References
402
Developing Energy Crops for Thermal Applications: Optimizing Fuel Quality, Energy Security and GHG Mitigation
406
Acronyms & abbreviations
407
16.1 Introduction
407
16.2 Energy Crop Production for Energy Security and GHG Mitigation
408
16.3 Optimization of Energy Grasses for Combustion Applications
422
16.4 Outlook
429
References
430
Organic and Sustainable Agriculture and Energy Conservation
435
17.1 Organic Agriculture: An Overview
436
17.2 Organic Agriculture: An Energy-Saving Alternative?
448
17.3 CO2 Emissions and Organic Management
453
17.4 Agricultural “Waste ” for Cellulosic Ethanol Production or Back to the Field?
458
17.5 Organically Produced Biofuels?
461
17.6 Conclusion
464
References
466
Biofuel Production in Italy and Europe: Benefits and Costs, in the Light of the Present European
475
18.1 Introduction
476
18.2 To What extent Would a Large Scale Biofuel Production Really Replace Fossil Fuels?
477
18.3 Physical Constraints Other than Energy
487
18.4 The Large-Scale Picture. An Overview of Substitution Scenarios
490
18.5 Discussion
493
18.6 Conclusions
497
References
499
The Power Density of Ethanol from Brazilian Sugarcane
502
19.1 Introduction
502
19.2 Errors and the Potential for More Relating to Sugarcane
505
19.3 Soil Erosion Problems
506
References
507
A Brief Discussion on Algae for Oil Production: Energy Issues
508
References
509
Index
510
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