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Modelling Written Communication - A New Systems Approach to Modelling in the Social Sciences
Preface
5
Introduction
8
A Description of Writing
9
The Modelling Process
10
The Models Formulated
10
The Writing Tutor Program
11
Further Applications and Developments
12
Chapter 1: Review of Composition Software
13
Chapter 2: Critical Realism
14
Chapter 3: The Modelling Process
15
Chapter 4: The Users Model of Composing
15
Chapter 5: Testing Out the Users Model
16
Chapter 6: The Theoretical Model of Composing
16
Chapter 7: The Explanatory Force of the Models
17
Chapter 8: The Writing Tutor Program
17
Conclusion
18
Contents
19
1 Review of Composition Software
24
1.1 Introduction
24
1.2 General Principles for Using Computersin Writing Instruction
24
1.3 The Need to Consult Educational Goals and Methods
25
1.4 Categories of Writing Tutor Programs Currently Available
28
1.4.1 Conferencing-Type Tutors
30
1.4.2 Tutors Based on Text-Analysis
30
1.4.3 Tutors Based on Heuristics or Invention Strategies
30
1.4.4 Text or Revision Tools
30
1.4.5 Organisers
31
1.4.6 Process-Based Tutors
31
1.5 Features of a Versatile Writing Tutor Program
35
1.6 Conclusion
36
2 Critical Realism
38
2.1 Introduction
38
2.2 Overview of Critical Realism
38
2.3 Critical Realism as Investigative Orientation
40
2.4 Criticisms of Critical Realism
43
2.5 Fallacies in Critical Realism
45
2.5.1 The Epistemic/Linguistic Fallacy
45
2.5.2 The Theory-Determinant Fallacy
46
2.6 Critical Realism and Literacy
47
2.7 Critical Realism and Composition
50
2.8 The Nature of the Users Model of Composing
53
2.9 Use of the Term Discourse in This Study
54
2.10 Conclusion
57
3 The Modelling Process
59
3.1 Introduction
59
3.2 The Nature of Theory
59
3.2.1 The Relationship Between Theory and Practice
61
3.2.2 The Use of Theory in This Study
62
3.2.3 The Relationship Between Theory and Models
63
3.3 The Models Produced in This Study
65
3.4 Francks Modelling Process
67
3.5 The Nature of Social Mechanisms
70
3.5.1 Contingent and Intentional Causality
71
3.6 Validation of the Models
74
3.7 Video Protocol Analysis
76
3.8 Generalizability of the Theoretical Model
77
3.9 Interplay Between Data and Theory
78
3.10 Stratification in the Inquiry Process
79
3.11 Cycles of Modelling Involved
80
3.11.1 First Cycle of Modelling (Masters Research)
82
3.11.2 Second Cycle of Modelling
82
3.11.3 Third Cycle of Modelling
83
3.12 Conclusion
84
4 The Users Model of Composing
86
4.1 Introduction
86
4.2 The Property of the Social System
86
4.3 The Phenomenon of Composing
88
4.3.1 The ''Property of the System'' Involved in Composing
90
4.3.2 The Functions Performed in Composing
90
4.3.3 The Mechanism Involved in Composing
92
4.4 The Empirical Model of Composing
93
4.4.1 Background to the Formulation of the Model
93
4.4.2 The Concept of a ''User''s Model''
94
4.4.3 The ''Stages of the Writing Process'' Model
95
4.5 Application of the First Empirical Model
99
4.5.1 Interfacing Composition Software with Word Processors
99
4.5.2 The Issue of Social Context
100
4.5.3 The Lack of a Theoretical Underpinning to the Model
100
4.6 The Users Model as a Description of Real Life Composing
101
4.7 Conclusion
102
5 Testing Out the Users Model
104
5.1 Introduction
104
5.2 The Video Protocol Analysis Method
105
5.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Video Protocols
107
5.2.2 Composing Profile Graphs
108
5.3 Confirmation of Phases in Composing
109
5.3.1 Description of the Phases
110
5.3.2 Confirmation of the Stages in the Empirical Model
113
5.3.3 The Emerging Picture of Composing
114
5.4 Key Issues Emerging from the Video Protocols
122
5.5 The Process Approach
123
5.5.1 Origins and Focus of the Process Approach
123
5.5.2 Relevance of the Process Approach to L1 and L2 Writers
124
5.5.3 Research into Composing Processes
124
5.5.4 The View of Writing Built Up from Process Research
125
5.5.5 The Process Approach to Teaching Composition
125
5.5.6 Criticisms of the Process Approach
126
5.5.7 The Interpersonal Context of the Process Approach
126
5.6 Approaches Which Set Academic Writing in Its Social Context
127
5.6.1 Writing as the Social Construction of Knowledge
128
5.6.2 The Textual Focus of Social Approaches to Writing
128
5.6.3 The Paradigms Involved in Knowledge Construction
132
5.7 Modifications Required to the Model
133
5.8 The Developing View of the Users Model
135
5.9 Conclusion
136
6 The Theoretical Model of Composing
137
6.1 Introduction
137
6.2 The Theoretical Model as Primary System
139
6.3 Reformulation of the Property of the System
139
6.4 Factors Contributing to the Formulation of the Theoretical Model
139
6.5 The System of Communicative Functions
145
6.6 The Theoretical Model as Generalizable Principle
148
6.7 The Formulation of a Second Empirical Model of Composing
149
6.8 Validating the Models
152
6.9 Composing as a Special Case of Communication
154
6.9.1 The Effects of Distancing on the Communicative Functions
154
6.9.2 Types of Distancing Occurring in Communication
156
6.10 Effects of Crafting on Communication in Written Mode
158
6.11 The Property of the System of Functions Underpinning Communication
161
6.12 The Picture of Composing Emerging from the Modelling Process
163
6.13 Rationale for Current Approaches to the Teaching of Written Composition
164
6.14 Conclusion
165
7 The Explanatory Force of the Models
166
7.1 Introduction
166
7.2 The Meaning of Validation in This Study
167
7.3 Issues Explored in the Video Protocols
168
7.4 Interpreting Composing Using the Model
170
7.5 Analysis of Data from the Video Protocols
171
7.6 The Explanatory Force of the Empirical Model
173
7.6.1 The General Configuration of the Model Confirmed
174
7.6.2 Previous Exceptions Accommodated by the New Model
177
7.6.3 The Influence of Extra-Systemic Factors on Composing
178
7.6.4 Intra-systemic Variation in Composing
184
7.6.5 Diagnosis of Problems Experienced by Writers
187
7.7 Conclusion
189
8 The Writing Tutor Program
190
8.1 Introduction
190
8.2 The Aim of Developing the Writing Tutor Program
190
8.3 The Process-Based Writing Tutor Program Developed in This Study
191
8.4 The Production of the Writing Tutor Program
192
8.5 Design Principles and Specifications
193
8.6 Basic Programming Specifications
194
8.7 The Theoretical Model and Educational Program Design
195
8.7.1 Contextualising Learning in Course Design
195
8.7.2 Ideational Content in Course Design
195
8.7.3 Interactive Aspects of Course Design
196
8.7.4 Social Aspects of Course Design
196
8.7.5 Reflexive Aspects of Course Design
197
8.8 Computer Human Interface Aspects of the Writing Tutor Program
197
8.9 The Prototype Writing Tutor Program
198
8.10 Design Features of the Completed Prototype
200
8.10.1 General Operating Principles
200
8.10.2 Translating the Stages of Composing into Menu Items
200
8.10.3 Prompts and Screen Displays
203
8.10.4 Other Main Menu Items
203
8.10.5 Customising the Program to Suit Various Contexts
204
8.11 Anticipated Program Enhancements
205
8.12 User Response to the Writing Tutor Program
206
8.12.1 Some Overall Impressions from Student Users
206
8.12.2 Improvements Suggested by Students
209
8.13 Conclusion
210
Conclusion
211
8.1 The Extent to Which the Aims Were Achieved
211
The Description of Writing Unfolding in the Course of the Modelling
211
The Modelling Process As Contributing to the Description of Writing
213
The Models Formulated
215
The Practical Application of the Modelling in the Creation of a Computerised Writing Program
217
Further Applications and Developments
218
The Use of the Theoretical Model as Generalizable Principle in Social Science
218
The Representation of the Theoretical Model as a Mathematical Formula
219
A Study of How the Composing (or Communicative Functions) are Encoded in the Text
219
Use of the Second Empirical Model to Analyse Composing in Different Genres
219
Analysis of Composing Carried Out Primarily on Computer
219
Testing Out of the Writing Tutor Program
220
The Development and Testing Out of Specialist Versions of the Writing Tutor Program
220
Development of Other Tutors Based on the ''Floating Menu Bar'' Principle
220
Reflection on the Inquiry Process
221
Glossary
222
Bibliography
229
Index
239
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