Assisting Victims of Terrorism - Towards a European Standard of Justice

Letschert_Frontmatter.pdf

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Letschert_Ch01.pdf

Chapter 1

Introduction and Definitions

1.1 The Aim of the Study

1.2 Methodology

1.3 Contemporary Terrorism

1.4 Defining Terrorism

1.4.1 The Various Features of Terrorism

1.4.2 Difficulties in Developing a Legal Definition of Terrorism

1.4.3 Typology of Terrorism

1.4.4 Some Final Observations

1.5 Defining Victims of Terrorism

1.6 Defining Restorative Justice

1.6.1 Restorative Justice in Literature

1.6.2 Restorative Justice in International Legal Instruments

1.7 Concluding Observations

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch02.pdf

Chapter 2

International Initiatives and Activities Focusing Specifically on Victims of Terrorism, Including Existing International Instru

2.1 Introduction into General Victims’ Rights

2.2 International Activities and Instruments

2.2.1 The United Nations and Victims of Terrorism

2.2.2 The International Criminal Court and Victims’ Rights

2.2.3 The Council of Europe and Victims of Terrorism47

2.2.4 The OSCE and Victims of Terrorism

2.2.5 Statements Issued by the European Forum for Victim Services / Victim Support Europe

2.2.6 The European Union and Victims of Terrorism

2.3 Analysis of the Legal Status of EU Standards for Victims of Terrorism

2.4 Justifying EU Involvement

2.5 Concluding Observations

2.6 Appendix I

2.7 Appendix II

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch03.pdf

Chapter 3

Needs of Victims of Terrorism

3.1 Introduction: Consequences of Terrorist Victimisation and Needs of Victims of Terrorism

3.2 The Needs of Victims

3.2.1 A Victimological Framework for Victims’ Needs

3.2.1.1 Process Factors

3.2.1.2 Outcome Factors

3.2.2 Comparing the Victimological Framework with the Rights Contained in the International Legal Instruments

3.3 The Differential Impact of Terrorism and Related Needs

3.3.1 The Effects of a Terrorist Attack on Victims

3.3.1.1 Physical/Medical Effects

3.3.1.2 Psychological, Behavioural and Social Consequences

Post-traumatic Stress: Resilience and PTSD

3.3.1.3 One-Off Versus Ongoing Terrorism

3.3.1.4 Hostage Taking, Suicide and CBRNE-Terrorism

3.3.1.5 Loss and Grief

3.3.1.6 Financial Consequences

3.3.1.7 Summary

3.3.2 Risk Groups

3.3.2.1 Prior Trauma or Mental Disorder

3.3.2.2 Gender

3.3.2.3 Effects on Children

3.3.2.4 Cultural Differences

3.3.2.5 Summary

3.3.3 Post-trauma Factors

3.3.3.1 Social Support

3.3.3.2 Media Attention

3.3.3.3 Criminal Justice Procedure

3.3.3.4 Terrorism and Its Relationship to War

3.3.3.5 Summary

3.3.4 The Needs of Victims of Terrorist Attacks

3.3.4.1 Immediate Emergency Assistance

3.3.4.2 Recognition and Respect

3.3.4.3 Information

3.3.4.4 Participation

3.3.4.5 Acknowledgment

3.3.4.6 Material Compensation

3.3.4.7 Security

3.3.4.8 Feelings of Anxiety and Loss

3.3.4.9 Anger, Retribution and Forgiveness

3.4 Vicarious Victims and the Intergroup Context

3.4.1 Vicarious Anxiety

3.4.1.1 Vicarious Traumatisation

3.4.1.2 Traumas from Television Viewing

3.4.1.3 Fear of Terrorism

3.4.1.4 Worrying Well

3.4.1.5 Fear of Public Transport Systems

3.4.1.6 Terror Management Theory

3.4.1.7 Summary

3.4.2 Vicarious Anger

3.4.2.1 Vicarious Retribution

3.4.2.2 Intergroup Forgiveness

3.4.2.3 Summary

3.4.3 The Needs of Vicarious Victims of Terrorist Attacks

3.4.3.1 Dealing with Feelings of Anxiety

3.4.3.2 Anger, Retribution and Forgiveness

3.5 Concluding Observations

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch04.pdf

Chapter 4

Psycho-Social Assistance

4.1 Introduction

4.2 A Stepped Care Approach to Mass Victimisation of Terrorism

4.2.1 Emergency Assistance/Psychological First Aid

4.2.1.1 Meeting Primary Needs

4.2.1.2 View the Population as a Resource

4.2.1.3 Accurate and Swift Information

4.2.1.4 Resuming Normal Life

4.2.1.5 Avoid Myths

4.2.2 Screening and Watchful Waiting

4.2.2.1 Who Needs Help

4.2.2.2 Watchful Waiting

4.2.3 Public Education

4.2.3.1 Reaching Those Who Need Help

4.2.3.2 Psycho-Education

4.2.4 Enhancement of Social Support

4.2.5 Coping Skills Training

4.2.6 Interventions for Victims Experiencing Significant Problems

4.2.6.1 Effective Treatments

4.2.6.2 Promising or Developing Therapies

4.2.7 Constraints and Complications

4.3 Community-Based Interventions

4.3.1 One-Stop Shop: Information and Advice Centers

4.3.2 Supporting Relief Workers: Both Professionals and Volunteers

4.3.3 Reinforcing and Stimulating Activities of Networks in the Community

4.3.4 Health Research

4.4 Information and Communication

4.4.1 Combating Fear and Anxiety

4.4.2 Preventing Vicarious Retribution

4.4.3 Communicating to (Potential) Victims

4.5 Concluding Observations

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch05.pdf

Chapter 5

Access to Justice and Administration of Justice

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Access to Justice

5.2.1 Legal Standards on Access to Justice at the Levels of the Council of Europe, the EU and the UN

5.2.1.1 The Right of Access to Competent Courts in Order to Bring a Civil Action in Support of Terrorist Victims’ Rights

5.2.1.2 The Permissibility of Court Fees

5.2.1.3 Legal Aid in Appropriate Cases

5.2.1.4 Legal Aid by Way of Accessory Prosecution

5.2.1.5 Legal Aid in Cross-Border Cases

5.2.1.6 Legal Aid in Cases of Mass Victimisation

5.2.1.7 Legal Advice

5.2.2 The Practical Relevance of These Provisions and Their Implementation in National Law

5.2.2.1 The Right of Victims of Terrorist Acts to Access to Competent Courts in order to Bring a Civil Action in Support of T

5.2.2.2 Legal Aid in Appropriate Cases

5.3 Administration of Justice

5.3.1 Legal Standards on the Administration of Justice at the Levels of the Council of Europe, the EU and the UN

5.3.1.1 Individuals Suspected of Terrorist Acts Should Be Brought to Justice77

5.3.1.2 Suspects Must Be Judged Within a Reasonable Time

5.3.1.3 The Position of Victims of Terrorist Acts in Criminal Proceedings

Participation

Participation for Victims of Crime in General

Alternatives to Direct Participation in Criminal Proceedings

The Role of Tertiary/Vicarious Victims in Criminal Proceedings

5.3.1.4 The Right to Information

5.3.1.5 The Right to Assistance During Legal Proceedings

5.3.1.6 The Right to Protection

5.3.2 The Practical Relevance of These Provisions and Their Implementation in National Law

5.4 Participation Rights for Victims of Terrorism

5.4.1 Participation in Partie Civile Proceedings

5.4.2 Participation and Legal Aid

5.4.3 Participation Through Oral Victim Impact Statements

5.4.4 Participation as a Party to Criminal Proceedings

5.4.5 Information of Participatory Rights

5.5 Concluding Observations

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch06.pdf

Chapter 6

Compensation and Reparation for Victimsof Terrorism*

6.1 Introduction

6.2 European Instruments Relating to Compensation for Victims of Crime and Terrorism

6.2.1 Council of Europe

6.2.1.1 The CoE 1983 Convention on the Compensation of Victims of Violent Crimes

6.2.1.2 Guidelines on the Protection of Victims of Terrorist Acts (2005)

6.2.1.3 Recommendation 2006(8) on Assistance to Crime Victims

6.2.2 European Union

6.2.2.1 Framework Decision on the standing of victims in criminal proceedings (2001)

6.2.2.2 The Council Directive 2004/80/EC

6.3 National State Compensation Funds for Victims of Crime in General

6.3.1 Rationales for State Intervention

6.3.2 General Comparative Remarks

6.3.3 Variety in EU Member State Compensation Funds

6.3.3.1 Eligibility and Cross-Border Victimisation

6.3.3.2 Losses Covered

6.3.3.3 Thresholds

6.3.3.4 Procedure

6.3.4 UK and Northern Ireland

6.3.4.1 The UK and the Criminal Injuries Compensation Act

6.3.4.2 Compensation After the London Bombings of 7 July 2005

6.3.4.3 Northern Ireland

6.3.5 Germany

6.3.6 Summary

6.4 Specific State Compensation Funds for Victims of Terrorism

6.4.1 Greece

6.4.2 France

6.4.3 Spain

6.4.4 Italy

6.4.5 Israel

6.4.5.1 Eligibility

6.4.5.2 Losses Covered

Compensation for Injured Victims

Compensation for Relatives of Deceased Victims

Compensation for Property Damage

6.5 Ad Hoc Compensation Funds: The Victim Compensation Fund of 11 September 2001 (VCF)

6.5.1 Introduction to US Legislation Relating to Victims of Terrorism

6.5.2 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund

6.5.2.1 Legal Basis

6.5.2.2 Victims’ Eligibility Criteria

6.5.2.3 VCF Procedure

6.5.2.4 Thresholds

6.5.2.5 Calculation of the Awards

6.5.2.6 Collateral Sources

6.6 International Trust Funds

6.6.1 Introduction

6.6.2 Trust Fund for Victims of the ICC

6.6.3 A European Trust Fund for Victims of Terrorism

6.7 Private Remedies

6.7.1 Insurance After 9/11

6.7.1.1 Implications of 9/11 for the Terrorism Risk

6.7.1.2 Insurance Schemes in Europe and the US

6.7.1.3 Government Intervention

6.7.2 Tort Law

6.7.3 Charity

6.8 Compensation Through Criminal Proceedings

6.9 Reparation for Victims of Terrorism

6.9.1 Reparation as a Means of Doing Justice to Victims of Terrorism

6.9.2 Reparations Based on the Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles

6.10 Concluding Observations

6.10.1 Compensation and Reparations from a Needs Perspective

6.10.2 Enhancing Crime Victim Compensation and Default Compensation Systems in EU Member States

6.10.3 Specific Compensation Fund at the European Level

6.11 Appendix I

Bibliography

Letschert_Ch07.pdf

Chapter 7

Restorative Justice and Victims of Terrorism

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Restorative Justice Principles and Values

7.2.1 Restorative Justice Principles

7.2.2 Restorative Justice Values

7.3 A Framework for Restorative Justice

7.3.1 The Relation of Restorative Justice to the Criminal Justice System

7.3.2 Restorative Justice at the Micro-, Meso-, and Macro-level

7.3.2.1 The Micro-level

7.3.2.2 The Meso-level

7.3.2.3 The Macro-level

7.3.3 A Three-Level Model of Restorative Justice

7.4 Restorative Justice Practices

7.4.1 Restorative Justice Processes

7.4.1.1 Victim–Offender Mediation and Victim Sensitive Offender Dialogue (VSOD)

General Research Findings on Victim–Offender Mediation

7.4.1.2 Family Group Conferencing

General Research Findings on Family Group Conferencing

7.4.1.3 Circles

General Research Findings on Sentencing Circles

7.4.1.4 Victim Impact Panels

General Research Findings on Victim Impact Panels

7.4.2 Other Restorative Justice Oriented Practices

7.4.2.1 Symbolic Reparation Measures

7.4.2.2 Restorative Sanctions

7.4.2.3 Truth Commissions: The Example of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

7.4.3 Limits to the Use of Restorative Justice Practices

7.5 The Potential of Restorative Justice Practices for Victims of Terrorism

7.5.1 Victims of Ongoing Intergroup Conflict: the Example of Israel/Palestine

7.5.2 Victims of Past Terrorism: the Example of the German Red Army Faction (RAF)

7.5.3 Mass Terrorist Victimisation and Their Impact upon Tertiary/Vicarious Victims

7.6 Restorative Justice Responses to Terrorism

7.6.1 Terrorism and Other Forms of Serious Violent Crime

7.6.1.1 Restorative Justice Practices in Cases of Serious Violent Crime

Victim Motivation

Restorative Outcomes

7.6.1.2 Alternatives to Direct Victim Involvement

7.6.2 Terrorism and Hate Crime

7.6.3 Terrorism and Large-Scale Conflicts

7.6.4 Restorative Justice and the Vicarious Dimension of Terrorism

7.6.4.1 Restorative Justice and Vicarious Retribution

7.6.4.2 The Involvement of the Community in the Restorative Justice Process

7.6.5 Suicide Terrorism

7.6.6 Religious Terrorism

7.6.7 Critical Comments on the Scope of Restorative Justice Responses

7.7 Restorative Justice Practices in Context

7.7.1 Restorative Justice Practices for Victims of Terrorism at the Micro-level

7.7.1.1 Jo Berry and Patrick Magee

7.7.1.2 Laura Blumenfeld and Omar al Khatib

7.7.1.3 Michael Buback and Peter-Jürgen Boock/Patrick von Braunmühl and Birgit Hogefeld

7.7.1.4 The facilitated encounter by Archbishop Desmond Tutu

7.7.2 Encounters Between Victims of Terrorism and Terrorists in the Light of Restorative Justice Principles

7.7.2.1 Principle of Personalism

7.7.2.2 Principle of Reintegration: Offender Accountability and Responsibility

7.7.2.3 Principle of Reparation

7.7.2.4 Principle of Participation

7.7.3 Restorative Justice Practices at the Meso-level: Involvement of the Community, Including Vicarious Victims

7.7.4 Restorative Justice Practices at the Macro-level

7.8 Towards a Conceptual Framework for Restorative Justice Processes for Victims of Terrorism at the Micro-, Meso- and Macro

7.8.1 A Conceptual Framework for Involving Victims of Terrorism and the Community in Restorative Justice Processes

7.8.2 Towards a Victim–Offender Mediation Model for Victims of Terrorism

7.8.2.1 Indirect Mediation

7.8.2.2 The Decision to Initiate Mediation

7.8.2.3 Surrogate Encounters

7.8.2.4 Preparation for Direct Mediation

7.8.2.5 The Appropriate Stage for Mediation

7.8.2.6 Outcome of Mediation

7.9 Towards a Global Restorative Justice Strategy in the Terrorism Context

7.10 Concluding Observations

Bibliography

Letschert_Backmatter.pdf

Annex IList of Experts November 2007 Seminar

BM1.1 Academics

BM1.2 Practitioners